Education policies Essay

cultivation is so important in any snap take outn society. For this crusade, it approach patterns a study part of any organisations visualises. The plans that any government wishes to tool as regards their reading system is rootd by existing policies. Factors which forge reflection of policies form the subject of this treatment. For orderly presentation, the essay is divided into triple chapters namely the introduction, the main body and conclusion.The introduction gives definitions of key terms employ in the essay as well as conceptual inning work, the main body outlines and discusses major accompanimentors which influenced cultivation policies in African countries later on(prenominal)(prenominal) achieving their freedom and lastly the conclusion draws a summary of the essay. 1. 1 procreation of essay purpose This essay civilizes at discussing the factors which influenced procreation policies in African countries subsequentlywards their achievement of in dependency.The essay will outline these factors and later give a detailed discussion of each factor. 1. 2 Definitions of terms In order to desexualize this discussion meaningful, it is imperative that definitions of key terms that are involved are done. The key terms involved in the discussion are culture, policy and license. The definitions of the terms are as inclined down the stairs precept.According to the United Nations reproduction, Scientific and Culture Organisation (19751), teaching method is define as organised and sustained communication designed to bring close learning Thus breeding in this context involves a lifelong dish out by which an individual is incorporated into the group and made loose of behaving in the ways expected by the society for an individual of a particular age, sex or status. training can take blank space formally, non formally and informally. However, in this context the emphasis is on formal train. polityA policy is outlined as a de liberate plan of action which is put in place to guide decisions and achieve mean outcomes. Policies differ from rules or laws. Rules or laws are established to compel or prohibit certain behaviours while policies guide actions towards desired goals. This discussion, however, focuses on instillling policies. Bartlett and Burton (2012134), define an education policy as the rafts of laws and initiatives that determine the shape and functioning of educational systems at both merry-go-roundic and local anaesthetic levels. Therefore, education policies give direction to the functioning of an education system.Independence This is defined as the freedom from being governed or ruled by other outlandish. African countries in this discussion acquired the freedom to rule themselves from colonial mast 1. 3 Conceptual Framework Blackmore (1999), pass ons that there are three models of policy devising namely popular participation, decree and delegation models. This discussion will dia gnose to these three models in outlining and discussing the factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving their emancipation. These models are discussed in detail below. (a) Popular Participation Policy making model.(b) In this model, anybody is apt(p) an opportunity to contribute to the formulation of policies. People in African countries were given opportunities to make suggestions on changes to make to the education system. For example, Zambias educational reforms of 1977. (c) Decree Policy Making Model In this model, the head of call down makes pronouncements on the direction to be followed in a given education system. (d) Delegation Policy Making Model This involves ap plosiveing a citizens committee to polish the education system of a given country. For example the Onide Commission was institute to review the education system of Kenya in 1963.Policies are made with repute to the findings of the delegacy. CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 Main Body Th is chapter outlines and discusses the major factors that influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. These factors are as given and discussed below. pedagogics for sparing emergence The retainer given to education as an important vehicle for economic development is one of the factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. Investment in formal education was considered as an essential case-hardened up for economic growth.African countries learnt lessons from developed countries that a high base weapons platform of education was a catalyst to rapid economic development. There was a feel among developing countries that the modernisation, industrialisation and wealth of developed countries were the direct instant of their educational systems. Coombs (1970) argues that during the sixties education in developing countries was regarded as a sort of intellectual yeast which would ferment and tran sform pre industrial societies by promoting knowledge, skills and attitudes which were favourable to economic and well-disposed development.Therefore, education policies in African countries after the achievement of independence were direct at promoting education pro heap expansion in order to achieve meaningful development. In fact an argument is advanced by Anderson (1965), that analysis of deduction from major developed countries such as Britain, France, United States of America and Russia that in general terms, a thresh hold male literacy rate of 40 percent was necessitate before there be any significant take off of economic development.To this end, African countries enjoin their policies on education after attaining independence towards increased glide slope to education in order to reach the collectful thresh hold of literacy. Therefore, in the fifties and 1960s, demand and plans for investment in formal education by African countries increased. Education was regarde d to be a principal weapon in achieving economic growth. To this end rapid decimal expansion of the education system became the order of the day in fresh self-sufficing African countries. Man power Shortages.After attaining independence, African countries were confronted with paucity of hands in various sectors of the economy. As a result of this scenario, they experience economic stagnation. Man power shortages were heavily felt in skillful and managerial fields. Thus, education policies in or so African countries were directed towards firmness the man power shortages experienced. This situation was evident from what obtained in Kenya. As Eshiwani (199326), observes at independence in 1963, Kenya found herself with a high shortage of practised custody to run the economy.In order to solve this problem, a commission was appointed to advise the government on the formulation and interpretation of national educational policies. Therefore, it can be stated that man power be after in freshlyly free lance countries of Africa gave a direction to the formulation of education policies. Consequently, the governments of fresh independent countries of Africa saw it paramount to expand the education systems of their countries in order to produce more graduates from the education system that would fill the manpower gaps which were experienced in various sectors of the economy.Most technical and managerial jobs at independence in most African countries were occupied by foreigners. Therefore, the aim of most African governments was to decolonise the education systems, produce more outfit from secondary and high education so that manpower to participate in national development could be realise. Fafunwa (1974), Contends that education development in African countries like Nigeria was treated as a national emergency for the reasonableness of curbing manpower shortages in crucial areas of the economy.In order to come to the requirements of manpower in various sectors of the economy, the policies of African countries after independence were directed at increasing instill enrolments, especially at the post ancient level. Rapid expansion of secondary and higher education was considered as a pre requisite for sustainable economic growth. Enhancing education as a basic forgiving right Newly independent African countries were confronted with a undertaking of providing to every s moderater their basic, essential right to education.The kind education that was to be provided was supposed to be relevant to the child in his or her African setting. For this reason, most saucily African countries had massive capital and recurrent budgets towards the finance of primary(a) education for all. The cooking of education especially at principal(a) level to citizens of rude(a)ly independent African countries was prompted by the 1948 Universal contract of Human Rights in which education is enshrined as a basic kind right. As Bishop (19891), postula tes, Everyone has the right to education.Education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. skillful and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the root of merit. Therefore, from the preceding, newly independent African countries were compelled to provide education especially primary education on the grounds of human justice and equity. The newly independent African countries were supposed to consider primary education as the stock right of every child.This was due to the fact that education was seen as an impressive way to give all children regardless of sex or family backdrop an equal start in life. Furthermore, the leadership of newly independent African countries considered education to be the great equaliser that would help to narrow the considerable disparities which were apparent in conditions of living in rural and urban commun ities. forwards the development of independence, education in most African countries was a affect for the elite.In order to correct this, African leaders made beginning changes to their education systems to make them more accommodative to everyone. As Carmody (199423), contends As in most African countries, from the early days Africas leaders viewed education as a powerful, often the most powerful vehicle for tender transformation. Thus, as the UNIP government assumed power, among its immediate priorities were the elimination of racial separationism in schools and expansion of education provision. Tuition and boarding fees were abolished. A point was also made by Bishop (1989), which in the days of the 1950s and 1960s massive expansion of education provision was regarded as the best performer available for rooting out old prejudices and socio economic injustices. Therefore, education was regarded as basic human right which everyone take aimed to enjoy as provided in the fore going arguments. In the pursuit of providing universal primary education, newly African countries set for themselves benchmarks. For example, the Addis Ababa congregation on the development of education in Africa held in 1961 recommended that primary education was to be universal, compulsory and free by 1980.The conference further recommended that secondary education was to be provided to 30 percent of the children who consummate primary school. Similarly, the conference of Arab states which met in Tripoli in 1966 also set 1980 as the target date for achieving universal primary education. To this end, it can be argued that one of the factors that influenced the formulation of education policies of African countries after achieving independence was cerebrate to the consideration that education was a basic human right which every citizen of a given country was supposed to enjoy .Hence, massive investment in the provision of education was undertaken by African countries after attain ing independence in order to promote the achievement of universal primary education. As Court and Kinyanjui (197814), comment on the provision of Universal Primary Education in Tanzania. President Nyerere had the choice of expanding the total of classes at grades V to 7 so that those children entering primary education received seven years of schooling instead of four.It can be concluded from the foregoing statement that the decision was arrived at because it enabled finances to be spent on the provision of 7 years of education to one child which helped him or her to become a useful member of society. African countries aimed at meliorate the access to education by increasing the number of school places which was facilitated by expanding already existing schools as well as construction of new schools in different parts of their countries. Promotion of Modernisation.African countries formulated their education policies with respect to the purpose of attaining modernisation. In ord er to influence modernisation in their countries, there was massive investment in education. This was a result of the belief that schooling would assist in the inculcation of modern ideas and attitudes. Bishop (1989), postulate that evidence seemed to indicate that schooling influenced the development of modern traits and ideas. To this end, schooling had some doctor on modernisation. This was manifestated in higher levels of modernity among urban flock and disdain modernity among rural people.Consequently, many African leaders in newly independent countries felt modernisation of attitudes and behaviours was an important pre requisite for their countries development. According to Carmody (1994), education should socialise a nations population into modern values, attitudes and personalities. For this reason there was more emphasis on the expansion of education systems in newly independent African countries in order to enhance the access levels. Increased access to education meant increased modernity levels at heart a given country.In studies which were conducted be Inkeles and Smith (1974), indicate that education was the atomic number 53 most variable for modernisation. The studies indicate that each year of schooling meliorate a persons score on their modernity subdue by about 2 points. Education was also very rough-and-ready in the development of positive attitudes and values. For this reason, formulation of education policies in newly independent African countries was influenced by the idea of modernisation. Modernisation was to be succeed by every citizen in the newly independent African countries through with(predicate) education.Ensuring Citizens Political Participation The citizens participation in political affairs of their countries could be seen as one of the major factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. Political participation of citizens of a particular country was linked to the imag ination of modernisation. This was due to the fact that knowledge was regarded as power. For this reason, many political leaders of African drafted educational policies which were responsive to the packaging of political participation of citizens in nation matters.This was highly evident in the content of education which was offered to the citizens . once more this could only be realised through the wide spread of education in African countries which most leaders promoted through the expansion of the education system. Cowan (1965), stressed that any political principle which governed education policy in independent African countries was supposed to regard as a top priority the provision of an education that would establish the most vigorous form of self government and independence.Therefore, extending schooling to a larger population would make more people politically and socially conscious and more bustling in the process of nation building. Thus, if equal political rights were t o be enjoyed by everyone then everyone ought to have at least an adequate primary school education to participate more fully in the political process of their country. Promotion of Social Equality and Removal of Divisions The attainment of social compare is among the major factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence.Education was regarded as an instrument of social equality which was critical in the upbringing of social responsibility. Therefore, education policies which were put in place by African countries after attainment of independence were directed towards the promotion of social equality within their countries. Consequently, more and more school places were created in most parts of African countries to bring about the issue of equality within their countries in the provision of education services.Equality in the provision of education was called for as it ensured that child was provided with varied and challenging opportunit ies for collective activities and corporate social services. Furthermore, Eshiwani (1993), points out that the promotion of social equality in the formulation of education policies in African countries after achieving independence helped young people to acquire positive attitudes of reciprocal respect which enabled them to live together in harmony and to make a positive contribution to the national life.This contribution to national life was non supposed to be extended to every part of the country, hence the deal of social equality in the provision of education. Respect and growing of pagan Heritage The formulation of education policies in African countries after achieving independence was influenced by the need for promoting respect and development of pagan heritage. Education policies were directed towards the promotion of respect, advance and developing the rich cultures which African countries have.For this reason, policy formulation as regards this situation was understa ndably addressed in the content of education which African countries were to provide to their people. The content of education was adapted to the culture of the people in any particular African country. In support of this assertion, Eshiwani (1993), states that the commission which was assigned to review Kenyas education system in 1963 recommended that Kenyan schools were to respect the heathen traditions of the people of the country, both as expressed in social institutions and relationships.Similarly, Damachi et al (1978), reports that education policies in African countries after attainment of independence were influenced by the need to enhance every aspect of human development which included the promotion of cultural heritage. Consequently, African countries were to state clearly their language of instruction in their education system both at lower and higher levels. This was done with the sole aim of promoting the preservation of cultural heritage and national unity.To this en d the education policies which most African countries drafted after the attainment of independence were geared towards learners understanding of past and present cultural values and their valid place in contemporary society. Education for self-importance Reliance The education policies of African countries were influenced by the need for the curriculum offered to move to the attainment of self reliance. Thus the recipients of such education were supposed to get themselves in self employing activities.The curriculum of African countries emphasized practical subjects in order to ensure the acquisition of self reliance by learners. It was realised that the kind of education which was offered in some countries in Africa was too studious and academic. The education system in most African countries separated manual(a) work from learning. Thus theory was separated from practice. This situation further disoriented young people from their societies. Therefore, education reforms in most A frican countries were fateful so as reverse this trend.As Bishop (1989116), reports By the mid 1950s it was being argued once again that schooling should be reformed in general through curriculum reform to include more practical and vocational studies Similarly, Carmody (1994), reports that Zambias First National Development Plan pointed to the need for more and more relating secondary education to the needs of the country by diversifying the secondary school syllabus into technical and commercial fields and giving a new place to agriculture. Therefore, it can be pointed out that education policies in African countries were supposed to address the concept of self reliance.Academic schooling was to be placed side by side with technical and vocational training in African countries. Improvement of Education Efficiency The education policies of most African countries after achieving independence were influenced by the need of improving the capability of the education systems. In edu cation systems of African countries, it was felt that there was no correlation mingled with inputs and out puts as well as between costs and returns. Education policies were centred on the need of making the systems of education to be more efficient.That is, the education systems were supposed to achieve their output at the concluding cost and also get the greatest return for a given cost. According to Bishop (1989), most education systems in African countries after achieving independence were inefficient, particularly at secondary and higher levels. The inputs such as ingestion per student or teacher training did not seem to have the effects on test scores which educators anticipated. Therefore, education policies were designed in a manner that would make the education systems in newly independent African countries to be more efficient.Additionally, education in many African countries was dysfunctional. It relied heavily on rote learning and led to an inappropriate honor for pa per qualifications. Furthermore, most curricular in African countries were irrelevant to pupils early lives and created an imbalance with many school leavers unemployed. Consequently, African countries formulated policies which were aimed at addressing the challenges which were go about in education systems. Education as a means of fostering international consciousness Education policies in African countries were influenced by the need to foster international consciousness in learners.Education policies as complimented by the content of education provided to learners was supposed to ensure that positive attitudes towards other countries as well as the international community were upheld. This was emphasized because no country existed as an island. Each country depended on others for its prosperity. Therefore, it was essential that learners were provided with education that would instil international consciousness for the purpose of promoting cooperation among countries. CHAPTER TH REE. 3. 0 CONCLUSION Education policies in African countries after their achievement of independence were influenced by a number of factors.Some of the major factors which influenced education policies in African countries included manpower shortages, recognition of education as a basic human right, consideration of education as a tool for development, modernisation, improving education efficiency, need for citizens political participation, and promotion of international consciousness among learners as well as self reliance. Changes in education policies were inevitable due to the fact that African countries experienced change in government.A change in government is associated with an ideological shift, thus aspects of the education system in a given countrywill be in a continual state of reformation. Hence, changes occurred in education aspects such as content, teaching methodologies, assessment and structure. REFERENCES.Anderson, C. 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